Ma Chao's Jiameng Pass offensive

Ma Chao’s Jiameng Pass offensive turns a military threat into a political realignment: Ma Chao first attacks on Zhang Lu’s behalf with the aim of capturing Xuande and compelling Liu Zhang to surrender, but Kong Ming’s stratagem exploits the distrust surrounding him and brings him into Xuande’s service. The episode links combat, rivalry, and diplomacy; its decisive result is not a battlefield victory over Ma Chao, but the addition of his forces to the campaign that ends with Liu Zhang yielding Chengdu.

Background and Stakes

As Xuande’s forces press into Shu, Ma Chao proposes to Zhang Lu that he be given troops to seize Jiameng Pass, capture Xuande, and ensure that Liu Zhang hands over twenty cities. Zhang Lu sends Huang Quan to Liu Zhang with an offer of assistance, then entrusts Ma Chao with twenty thousand soldiers and sends Yang Bo to supervise the campaign. The assault places a key pass under immediate threat while Xuande is already pursuing the capture of Mianzhu, a gateway to Chengdu.

At Mianzhu, Huang Zhong and Wei Yan confront the city’s defender, Li Yan. After neither Huang Zhong nor Li Yan can prevail in single combat, Kong Ming devises a trap: Huang Zhong draws Li Yan into pursuit, and Li Yan is caught in an ambush. Li Yan promptly surrenders and offers to negotiate the city’s capitulation. Mianzhu falls without anyone being killed in its capture. The achievement is interrupted by urgent news that Ma Chao has attacked Jiameng Pass and caught its defenders off guard, bringing the pass close to falling.

Zhang Fei’s Challenge

Xuande decides that a relief force must be sent and expects Zhang Fei to lead it. Kong Ming, however, asks Xuande not to reveal the commission when Zhang Fei arrives. Zhang Fei comes in confident that he will be chosen, announcing his intention to deal with Ma Chao. Kong Ming feigns not to notice him and suggests that perhaps only Guan Yu could face the attacker. Zhang Fei takes the slight as a challenge, insisting that he has defeated armies of a million and can meet Ma Chao.

Kong Ming then questions whether Zhang Fei is wise enough to face an opponent famed for courage, recalling that Cao Cao had to disguise himself to escape Ma Chao. He even doubts that Guan Yu could defeat him. Zhang Fei answers that he will prevail and pledges to accept punishment under military law if he fails. Only then does Kong Ming grant him command. The exchange turns Zhang Fei’s eagerness into a formal military commitment: his confidence wins him the assignment, but also binds him to its risk.

Wei Yan goes ahead with a small force, Zhang Fei follows, and Xuande comes close behind. The fighting produces a chain of confusions and reversals. Wei Yan fights Yang Bo; Ma Dai, Ma Chao’s brother, wounds Wei Yan with an arrow and pursues him; Zhang Fei arrives and attacks Ma Dai, mistaking him for Ma Chao, until Xuande restrains him. Rather than resolving the campaign, these encounters bring the opposing forces into a more direct contest.

The next day Ma Chao challenges Zhang Fei to single combat. Xuande initially refuses permission, impressed by Ma Chao’s boldness and appearance: his helmet bears a carved lion, and he wears a white battle-gown and a belt decorated with animal symbols. Xuande eventually sends Zhang Fei and his troops into action. The two men clash more than a hundred times without either gaining the upper hand. Xuande pulls Zhang Fei back, but Zhang Fei is eager to fight again.

When Ma Chao returns after dark, torches light the arena so the two can continue their contest. They exchange further attacks and stratagems, yet neither prevails. Zhang Fei is ready to fight again at dawn, but Kong Ming arrives, worried that the prolonged rivalry may end in Zhang Fei’s death. The repeated duels establish Ma Chao as a formidable equal, while making clear that force alone has not settled control of the pass.

Kong Ming’s Political Stratagem

Kong Ming proposes bringing Ma Chao over to Xuande rather than continuing to risk Zhang Fei in combat. His plan turns on Zhang Lu’s political ambition and Yang Song’s appetite for bribes. Kong Ming reasons that a promise to have the emperor recognize Zhang Lu as king of Hanning will make Zhang Lu order Ma Chao to withdraw. At the same time, a payment to Yang Song can secure his cooperation and influence what Zhang Lu believes about Ma Chao.

Sun Qian is sent to Hanzhong carrying a letter and enough gold and pearls to bribe Yang Song. Yang Song accepts the bribe and introduces Sun Qian to Zhang Lu. Because Xuande has imperial family connections, Zhang Lu believes the promise and welcomes the prospect of recognition; he orders Ma Chao to end the campaign and return. Ma Chao refuses, sending back the terse response, “Without merit; no return.” When Zhang Lu repeats his order, Ma Chao gives the same reply.

Yang Song exploits the refusal, telling Zhang Lu that Ma Chao may be preparing to rebel and spreading that rumor more widely. Zhang Lu becomes alarmed and turns to Yang Song for advice. Yang Song recommends imposing three demands on Ma Chao: seize Shu, bring back Liu Zhang’s head, and remove Xuande’s troops; Zhang Lu is also urged to strengthen his defenses in case Ma Chao rebels. Zhang Lu accepts the proposal. The orders do not reconcile Ma Chao with his commander; instead, they leave him confused, force him to halt the campaign, and deepen suspicion against him.

Yang Song continues circulating the claim that Ma Chao will overthrow Zhang Lu. Troops are sent to stop Ma Chao from reaching Hanzhong, leaving him trapped between a commander who no longer trusts him and an enemy who has yet to defeat him. Kong Ming recognizes that this isolation creates the opening his plan requires. Li Hui, a former opponent serving Liu Zhang, arrives to join Xuande because he regards him as virtuous. Kong Ming sends him to offer Ma Chao a way out if he will enter Xuande’s service.

Defection and Surrender at Chengdu

Li Hui presents Ma Chao with the political dead end of his position: Cao Cao is his mortal enemy, Liu Zhang has no use for him, and Yang Song has poisoned Zhang Lu against him. He then relays Xuande’s offer. Ma Chao receives it gladly and, within days, comes to Jiameng Pass to offer his services to Xuande. The campaign’s central reversal is complete: the commander sent to threaten Xuande becomes his ally, and the contest between Ma Chao and Zhang Fei gives way to a joint advance toward Chengdu.

Some of Ma Chao’s men desert and return to Liu Zhang’s court, reporting the change of allegiance. When Liu Zhang learns that the allied forces are approaching Chengdu, he seals the city and prepares for the worst. Ma Chao and Ma Dai ride up to the gates and call for Liu Zhang to speak with them from the wall. Hearing Ma Chao explain in person that he has joined Xuande, Liu Zhang understands that further resistance is futile. He opens the gates because he genuinely wants to spare the people further suffering. Some commanders still favor fighting, but a soothsayer’s pronouncement that the stars indicate a bright new ruler confirms Liu Zhang’s decision to surrender to Xuande.

Xuande’s entry into Chengdu is welcomed by the population. He forbids retaliation against opponents such as Huang Quan and Liu Ba, although they have continued to oppose him; moved by this restraint, both surrender. Xuande initially wants Liu Zhang to remain in the city out of respect, but Kong Ming argues that the city cannot have two rulers and that Liu Zhang’s indecision has cost him his position. Liu Zhang is therefore sent to Jingzhou to live under comfortable house arrest and receives an honorific title. The capture of Chengdu, achieved after Ma Chao’s defection, brings the crisis at Jiameng Pass to a political conclusion and places the city under Xuande’s rule.