jihad

Jihad, meaning "struggle" in Arabic, is a central and deeply contested concept in A Thousand Splendid Suns, its meaning shifting dramatically across the decades of Afghan history the novel covers. Initially presented as a noble and unifying cause against a foreign invader, the concept is progressively corrupted, becoming a justification for internecine slaughter, patriarchal control, and ultimately, the violent suppression of women. The novel traces this arc from the Soviet war through the Mujahideen civil war to the Taliban regime, showing how the word is wielded by different groups to serve their own ends, and how its meaning is experienced and resisted by the women caught in its wake.

The Jihad Against the Soviets: A Cause for Sacrifice

In the early 1980s, jihad is the rallying cry that draws young men like Laila's brothers, Ahmad and Noor, away from their home in Kabul. They leave to join Commander Ahmad Shah Massoud's forces in the Panjshir valley, a decision that their mother, Fariba, supports with fierce pride, seeing it as a sacred duty. The novel presents this initial phase of jihad as a legitimate, if tragic, war of national liberation against the Soviet Union, which had invaded in 1979. The Mujahideen are portrayed as freedom fighters, and their struggle is one that commands respect and sacrifice from the entire society. The death of Ahmad and Noor in this jihad is a devastating blow to their family, but their mother clings to the nobility of their cause, believing they have become shaheed (martyrs) for a righteous purpose. This early depiction establishes jihad as a powerful, mobilizing force that can demand the ultimate price.

The Corruption of Jihad: Civil War and Warlordism

With the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 and the fall of the communist government in 1992, the meaning of jihad undergoes a radical and violent transformation. The Mujahideen, having defeated their common enemy, turn their weapons on each other. The novel shows how the concept of jihad is fractured and debased as different factions—Hezb-e-Islami, Jamiat-e-Islami, Junbish-i-Milli, Ittehad-i-Islami, Hizb-e-Wahdat—fight for power and territory in Kabul. The men who were once called "Mujahideen" are now referred to as "warlords" or tofangdar (riflemen), terms that carry deep aversion and scorn. The rockets that rain down on Kabul are fired in the name of competing jihads, killing civilians indiscriminately. Laila's father, Hakim, bitterly observes that these men "learned to walk with a milk bottle in one hand and a gun in the other," highlighting how the original spirit of the struggle has been perverted into a cycle of endless violence. The novel makes clear that this internal war is a betrayal of the sacrifices made during the Soviet jihad, and it is this chaos that ultimately paves the way for the Taliban.

The Taliban's Jihad: A War Against Women

The Taliban's rise to power in 1996 represents the final and most perverse redefinition of jihad in the novel. They claim to be fighting a holy war to impose a pure Islamic order, but their jihad is waged not against foreign invaders or corrupt warlords, but against the most basic rights and freedoms of the Afghan people, especially women. The novel details the Taliban's draconian decrees, which are enforced with brutal violence in the name of Shari'a. Women are forbidden from working, girls are forbidden from attending school, and they are required to be fully covered in a burqa and accompanied by a male relative at all times. The Taliban's version of jihad is one of control, punishment, and public spectacle, as seen in the executions at Ghazi Stadium. Rasheed, who initially welcomes the Taliban for bringing "peace and order," uses their ideology to further entrap Laila, threatening to report her to them for adultery. The novel shows that under the Taliban, the word "jihad" has become a tool for enforcing a rigid patriarchal system, stripping women of their agency and reducing them to a state of near-total subjugation.

The Personal Jihad: Endurance and Resistance

In contrast to the public, political jihads of the men, the novel presents a different kind of struggle—a private, daily jihad of endurance and survival waged by its female protagonists. This concept is first introduced by Nana, who tells a young Mariam that the only skill a woman like them needs is tahamul: "Endure." This is a jihad of silence, of bearing abuse, of sacrificing one's own desires for the sake of others. Mariam endures decades of Rasheed's cruelty, while Laila endures the loss of her family and a forced marriage. However, the novel also shows that this endurance can transform into active resistance. The friendship between Mariam and Laila becomes a quiet rebellion, a space of mutual support and love that defies the oppressive world around them. The ultimate act of resistance is Mariam's killing of Rasheed, a violent, desperate act that she performs to save Laila's life. In that moment, Mariam takes control of her own destiny, deciding the course of her life for the first time. This personal, sacrificial act can be seen as a final, true jihad—a struggle for justice and love in a world that has denied her both. The novel suggests that while the public jihads of men lead to destruction, the private jihads of women, rooted in love and sacrifice, can be a source of salvation and hope.